Based on my research, and helping clients develop RoHS-compliant electronic products, I believe that: If you buy a lead-free RoHS-compliant electronic device-- and if it works when you first turn it on-- it should be safe and fully-functional for at least one year. If you are lucky, it may last a couple of years longer... versus the 20+ years use that we can easily get out of many lead-based electronic products.
Thus I have been very selective about my purchasing of electronic parts and equipment since year-end 2005. If I can find what I want as used, refurbished, or "new old stock" (NOS) on ebay or at a hamfest-- manufactured before 2006 (when the RoHS Directive went into effect)-- I feel comfortable just going ahead and buying it. If what I think that I want is only available as new items, manufactured since the beginning of 2006, I reconsider: do I just want this item, or do I absolutely need it for a current or upcoming project for one of my businesses? If I just want the item, I'll probably just forget it, and not waste my money on lead-free crap. If I need the item, I will investigate various candidates based on features/ functions/ etc. that are important to me, and sort the list by the desireability of each candidate. Then, any candidates that were designed or made in Europe automatically go to the bottom of my list. As I work down through my list of candidates, checking for sources and prices, my major remaining concern is: Will this probably-lead-free electronic thingy pay for itself within 3 months?.
Maybe 1% of the documents that I have collected on these subjects say "Lead is bad. Remove it at any cost." (I've seen estimates that complying with the RoHS Directive will cost between $40,000,000,000 and $100,000,000,000 worldwide, and will cause 5 to 6 times as much environmental damage as if it had not been enacted.) About half of the documents say "here are ways that we can try to comply with the RoHS Directive and its clones, by investing huge amounts of engineering and manufacturing time, money, and management focus." But the gist of the rest of the documents that I have collected is:
Manufacturers of lead-free/ RoHS-compliant electronics-- and their lawyers-- may want to carefully study Article 7 in the European Product Liability Directive ( Directive 85/374/EEC + Directive 1999/34/EC) which offers this defense: "The producer shall not be liable as a result of this Directive if he proves... (d) that the defect is due to compliance of the product with mandatory regulations issued by the public authorities... "
The RoHS Directive has been in place for almost two years now, and so far I haven't read about any big fires, airplane crashes, or other major disasters that have been traced to lead-free electronics. I have read a couple of online articles about Microsoft having to take a $1,000,000,000+ writedown to extend the warranty on the Xbox, because of numerous "Red Ring of Death" (RROD) failures due to bad/unreliable lead-free solder joints. So I am starting to buy some new test equipment for my businesses if I feel that it will pay for itself within the first three months that I own it. But if this new equipment is AC powered, I only let it be plugged into a live outlet when I or someone else is around, and if it is battery powered I take out the batteries whenever the new equipment is not in use. Since early 2006, my personal Precautionary Principle has been: "Don't buy-- or fly in-- anything manufactured in Europe."
Early in my study, I decided to pull this information together as a web page, to make it:
If a reference can be downloaded from the Internet for free, I've included a link from its title to the appropriate web page. Some web sites require you to register online before accessing some of their documents. If a book, CDROM, paper, or report is in print, I show the list price and include a link to at least one source. Even if an item is out of print, you might be able to buy it from one of the sources listed on my web page Internet Sources for Electronics Books, Standards, Manuals, Journals, and Magazines.
My web page, Designing Lead-Free, RoHS-Compliant, and WEEE-Compliant Electronics, where I'm trying to summarize this huge mass of data, is already 55 pages long. And that is with only 4 out of 20 sections reasonably complete, the section on solder in process, and 15 sections barely blocked out... In that web page, "[xxx]" or "[xxx, pages yyy-zzz]" refers to a book or other document whose complete citation is in this bibliography. Like my books, both of these web pages are primarily aimed at electrical and electronic engineers who design and develop electronic products and electronic equipment for a living. We face more challenges than ever before:
This web page is divided into:
Government Regulations on Lead-Free, RoHS, and
WEEE (revised 2/11/2007)
[2] This Directive was amended by Directive 1999/34/EC in volume 42 issue L141 pages 20-21 of the OJ on June 4, 1999. The consolidated text of these two Directives is available on the EUR-Lex website. One defense that the producer (manufacturer, importer, or the person whose name or trade mark is on the product) can use is in Article 7: "The producer shall not be liable as a result of this Directive if he proves... (d) that the defect is due to compliance of the product with mandatory regulations issued by the public authorities... "
[3] Japan passed the Act on the Promotion of Effective Utilization of Resources Act No. 48 of 1991 (Japan "RoHS") in 2000.
[4] The European Union published the End of Life Vehicles Directive (ELV Directive, 2000/53/EC) in volume 43 issue L269 pages 34-42 of the Official Journal of the European Union (OJ) on October 21, 2000. This Directive took effect on July 1, 2002, and with some exceptions (Annex II), totally bans the use of (Article 4.2(a)):
[5] The European Union published the Restriction of the Use of Certain Hazardous Substances in Electrical and Electronic Equipment Directive ( RoHS Directive, 2002/95/EC) in volume 46 issue L37 pages 19-23 of the OJ on February 13, 2003. This Directive takes effect on July 1, 2006, and with some exceptions (Annex) totally bans the use of (Article 4.1):
Article 2.3 explicitly states that spare parts for the repair of electrical and electronic equipment put on the market before July 1, 2006 do not fall under the RoHS Directive. Nor does the reuse of electrical and electronic equipment put on the market before July 1, 2006. I.e., the electrical equipment is already in the European Union, and out of the manufacturer's control as of July 1, 2006. Owners of equipment acquired before this date may repair or upgrade their equipment, to extend its lifetime, instead of being forced to discard it.
[6] Council Decision COM(2004) 606, adopted Sept. 23, 2004), amends the Annex of the RoHS Directive to permit-- in any application that was not already exempted--a homogenous material to contain a maximum of:
[8] The first amendment, which was published in volume 48 issue L214 page 65 of the OJ on August 19, 2005. Under this definition, we can have a multi-million dollar piece of equipment that we want to sell or use in the EU. But if so much as one mark on one component exceeds any of these limits, the entire piece of equipment violates the RoHS Directive... and our company may be severely punished for this transgression.
[9] Commission Decision 2005/717/EC, published Oct. 15, 2005, amends the Annex to the RoHS Directive. This became...
[10] The second amendment to the RoHS Directive was published in volume 48 issue L271 pages 48-50 of the OJ on October 15, 2005, revising exemption 9 in the Annex.
[11] Commission Decision 2005/747/EC, published Oct. 25, 2005, amends the Annex to the RoHS Directive. This became...
[12] The third amendment to the RoHS Directive was published in volume 48 issue L280 pages 18-19 of the OJ on October 25, 2005, revising exemptions 7 and 8, and adding exemptions 11-15 to the Annex.
[13] Commission Decision 2006/310/EC, published Apr. 26, 2006, amends the Annex of the RoHS Directive. This became...
[14] The fourth amendment to the RoHS Directive was published in volume 49 issue L115 pages 38-39 of the OJ on April 28, 2006, adding exemptions 16-20 to the Annex.
[15] Commission Decision 2006/691/EC, published Oct. 12, 2006, amends the Annex to the RoHS Directive. This became...
[16] The fifth amendment to the RoHS Directive was published in volume 49 issue L283 pages 48-49 of the OJ on October 14, 2006, adding exemptions 21-27 to the Annex.
[17] Commission Decision 2006/692/EC, published October 12, 2006, amends the Annex to the RoHS Directive. This became...
[18] The sixth amendment to the RoHS Directive was published in volume 49 issue L283 pages 50-51 of the OJ on October 14, 2006, adding exemption 28 to the Annex.
[19] Commission Decision 2006/690/EC, published Oct. 12, 2006, amends the Annex of the RoHS Directive. This became...
[20] The seventh amendment to the RoHS Directive was published in volume 49 issue L283 page 47 of the OJ on October 14, 2006, adding exemption 29 to the Annex.
[21] To help manufacturers, importers, and others understand their responsibilities, risks, and liabilities under European Directives, in 2000 the European Commission published the "Guide to the Implementation of Directives Based on New Approach and Global Approach". This is commonly called the "Blue Book", or "Blue Guide", and can help you understand just how European authorities will interpret these Directives when it is unclear whether/how a Directive applies to a specific product or situation.
[22] The DTI has published a draft of the United Kingdom's version of the RoHS Directive as "Part IV - The RoHS Directive - draft implementing Regulations."
[23] The official version of the UK law came out as Statutory Instrument 2006 No. 1463,
[24] The DTI has also published draft Guidance Notes for the RoHS Directive, dated July 2004.
[25] A revised draft RoHS REGULATIONS Government Guidance Notes came out in August 2005.
[26] The final RoHS REGULATIONS Government Guidance Notes came out in November 2005.
[27] The DTI published the RoHS Enforcement Guidance Document, Version 1 in May 2006.
[28] The European Union published the Waste Electrical and Electronic Equipment Directive (WEEE Directive, 2002/96/EC) in volume 46 issue L37 pages 24-38 of the OJ on February 13, 2003. Directive 2003/108/EC, published in volume 46 issue L345 pages 106-107 of the OJ on December 31, 2003, amends Article 9 of the WEEE Directive with regard to the financing of WEEE for businesses. The WEEE Directive:
.
[30] The DTI has also published draft Guidance Notes for the WEEE Directive, dated July 2004. According to these Guidance Notes, producers must register with the (UK) National Clearing House by August 13, 2005 (pages 4, 20-21).
[31] Commission Decision 2004/249/EC is a questionaire for Member States of the EU, on reporting the implementation of the WEEE Directive.
[32] Commision Decision 2005/369/EC on rules for Member States to monitor compliance with the WEEE Directive.
[33] The European Union also bans many flame retardants that might be used in printed circuit boards (PCB's) under the Restrictions on the Marketing and Use of Certain Dangerous Substances and Preparations Directive (Directive 76/769/EEC) which has been amended 39 times since it was published in the OJ in September 27, 1976.
[34] The European Union published the Batteries and Accumulators Containing Certain Dangerous Substances Directive (Battery Directive, 91/157/EEC) in volume xx issue L78 pages 38-41 of the OJ on March 26, 1991. Directive 98/101/EC, published in volume 42 issue L1 pages 1-2 of the OJ on January 5, 1999, clarifies the limitations on mercury in batteries. The Battery Directive permits lead-acid and nickel-cadmium batteries to be used in electrical and electronic equipment as long as they contain less than 0.0005% by weight of mercury. Button cells and batteries made from button cells are permitted to contain up to 2% mercury by weight (Article 3.1).
[35] The European Union published the Energy-using Products (EuP) Directive (EuP Directive, 2005/32/EC) in Volume 48 issue L191 pages 29-58 of the OJ on July 22, 2005. This Directive took effect on August 11, 2005. It sets up a framework for regulating products that:
[36] The European Union published a new Batteries and accumulators and waste batteries and accumulators (new Batteries Directive, 2006/66/EC) in volume 49 issue L266 pages 1-14 of the OJ on September 26, 2006. This Directive takes effect on September 26, 2009. Article 4 places limits on the mercury (Hg) and cadmium (Cd) content of batteries, but most of the Directive is concerned with collecting and recycling.
[37] China's Ministry of Information Industry has drafted a Management Methods for the Prevention and Control of Pollutants from Electronic Information Products law, often referred to as "China RoHS ". This law also bans:
[38] Grace Lin's web site has an unofficial translation of "Administrative Measure on the Control of Pollution Caused by Electronic Information Products," dated Mar. 2, 2006.
[39] China RoHS actually consists of several interconnected laws: "Measures for Administration of the Pollution Control of Electronic Information Products," May 9, 2006.
[39a] Another unofficial translation by the AeA is Management Methods for Controlling Pollution by Electronic Information Products."
[40] "Electronic Information Products Classification and Explanations," Mar. 16, 2006.
[41] "General Rule of Environment-Friendly Use Period of Electronic Information Products, Draft,"
[42] "Marking for Control of Pollution Caused by Electronic Information Products," Nov. 6, 2006.
[43] "Packaging Recycling Marks," Jan. 1, 2002.
[44] "Requirements for Concentration Limits for Certain Hazardous Substances in Electronic Information Products," Nov. 6, 2006.
[45] "Testing Methods for Regulated Substances in Electronic Information Products, Draft,"
[46] California passed Proposition 65, the Safe Drinking Water and Toxic Enforcement Act of 1986 in 1986. This act affects companies who:
[47] California adopted Senate Bill No. 20 (SB20) on September 25, 2003, banning the use of certain materials in some types of electronic equipment, and setting up a system for the collection and recycling of certain types of electronic waste.
[48] California adopted Senate Bill No. 50 (SB50) on September 29, 2003, amending SB20 in a number of areas, but the combination is usually still referred to as "SB20". SB20 and SB50 create a number of bureaucratic hurdles and snares for anyone who sells-- or wants to sell-- video display devices with screens larger than 4 inches diagonal (with some exceptions, SB50, pages 9, 11; SB20, page 9) to consumers in California:
[50] California Legal Council's digest of SB50, on page 2, (3) says "The act requires each manufacturer of an electronic device who sells a covered electronic device in this state to submit an annual report to the board on the number of electronic devices sold by the manufacturer". On page 6, 25214.10.1 specifies the information that a manufacturer must suppy to retailers and the State Board of Equalization. On page 9, 42463(f) defines the "covered electronic devices". On page 10, 42463(n) defines "manufacturer". On page 11, 42463(t) defines "video display device". On pages 11 and 12, 42464.6(a) gives the Department of Toxic Substances Control the authority to determine what is, or is not, a "covered electronic device". On pages 13 and 14, 42465.2 specifies the information that the manufacturer must supply to the California Integrated Waste Management Board, consumers, and the Department of Toxic Substances Control.
[51] For the actual implementation of SB20 and SB50, California's Health and Safety Code Section 25214.9-25214.10.2, under 25214.10(a) effectively bans lead, cadmium, mercury, and hexavalent chromium in "covered electronic devices" to the limits permitted by the RoHS Directive by January 1, 2007, or the effective date of the RoHS Directive, whichever comes later.
[52] Furthermore, California's Public Resources Code Section 42463, 42463(f) defines "covered electronic device", 42463(n) defines "manufacturer", and 42463(t) defines "video display device".
[53] California's actual regulations implementing SB20 and SB50 are in Emergency Regulations. 18660.5(23) has this snare for manufacturers-- "These catagories include, but are not limited to, (my italics) ...". 18660.41 specifies information that manufacturers must report to the California Integrated Waste Management Board, while 18660.42 specifies information that manufacturers must provide to consumers.
[54] Washington passed Engrossed Substitute House Bill 2488 (EGHB2488) on March 29, 2004 to establish a statewide recycling system for waste electronics.
[55] Maine adopted LD 743 (amended by HP 549) on May 14, 2003. This law bans disposal of CRT's in landfills after January 1, 2006.
[56] In late 2005/ early 2006 Maine adopted an electronic waste law under 38 MRSA Section 1610 to establish a statewide recycling system for waste electronics.
[57] Massachusetts, under 310 CMR 19 paragraph 19.017(3)(c), has not permitted cathode ray tubes (CRT's) to be deposited in landfills, or incinerated, since April 1, 2000.
[58] Minnesota adopted H.F. No. 882 in 2003. This law bans disposal of CRT's in landfills after July 1, 2005.
[59] Maryland adopted House Bill 575 on May 10, 2005. This law requires computer manufacturers that manufactured more than 1,000 computers per year, averaged over the last three years, to register with the (Maryland) Department of the Environment if they wish to sell new computers in the state after December 31, 2005. The initial registration fee is $5,000. The registration fee then drops to $500 per year if the manufacturer has implemented a "computer takeback program". Otherwise the registration fee continues at $5,000 per year. This law will expire December 31, 2010 unless it is renewed by the legislature.
Magazines/Newsletters on Lead-Free, RoHS, and WEEE
(revised 3/29/2005)
Electronics Manufacture and Test
Journal of Electronic Materials
LEAD-FREE Connection $195/year, published quarterly.
Soldering & Surface Mount Technology
Mailing Lists on Lead-Free, RoHS, and WEEE (revised
1/28/2007)
Leadfree mailing list for subscription; also see IPC LeadFree Archives
NoLeadTech mailing list for subscription; also see IPC NoLeadTech Archives
RoHS for subscription
Database for Solder Properties with Emphasis on New Lead-free Solders Release 4.0
Eco-Info & Lead (Pb)-Free: Lead (Pb)-Free Solutions from Texas Instruments
Electronics Manufacturing Productivity Facility
Infopool - On-line Information Resource about Lead-free Solders and Technologies
International Conference on Lead Free Electronics "Towards implementation of the RHS Directive"
International National Electronics Manufacturing Initiative (iNEMI)
Lead-free & RoHS Directive compliance services
Lead-Free Solutions: Making Lead-Free a Reality Today
NASA Goddard Space Flight Center Tin Whisker (and Other Metal Whisker) Homepage
National Electronics Manufacturing Initiative (NEMI)
National Metal Finishing Resource Center
Printed Wiring Board Resource Center
RoHS Simplified (Department of Trade and Industry).
Speedline Technologies White Papers
Texas Instruments Quality & Pb-Free
Toxics Use Reduction Institute
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[] Electronic Materials Handbook, Volume 1: Packaging. Materials Park, OH: ASM International, 1989. ISBN 0-87170-285-1. $140.00 list price.
[23] Equilibrium Data for Tin Alloys. Greenford, Middlesex, UK: Tin Reasearch Institute, 1949.
[] Handbook of Aluminum, 3rd Edition. St. Louis, MO: Metal Goods Service Centers.
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[] The Properties of Tin. Greenford, Middlesex, England: Tin Research Institute, 1954.
[] The Quick Pocket Reference for Solder Assembly. Cranston, RI: AIM, 2000.
[] Rational Use of Potentially Scarce Metals. Brussels, Belgium: NATO Scientic Affairs Division, 1976.
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[(26)] Soldering Manual. New York: American Welding Society, 1959.
[] The Mechanism of Phase Transformation in Metals. London: The Institute of Metals, 1956.
[(27)] The Welding, Brazing, and Soldering of Copper & Its Alloys . Radlett, Herts.: Copper Development Association, 1952.
[] Abbott, David, Inorganic Chemistry. London: Mills & Boon, 1965.
[] Addison, W. E., The Allotropy of the Elements. London: Oldbourne Press, 1964.
[28] Allen, B. M., Soldering and Welding. New York: Drake, 1975.
[(30)] Andrews, D. R., Soldering Brazing Welding and Adhesives. The Institution of Production Engineers, 1978.
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[] Avner, Sidney H., Introduction to Physical Metallurgy. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1964.
[(32)] Bakoglu, H. B., Circuits, Interconnections, and Packaging for VLSI. New York: Addison-Wesley, 1990. ISBN 0-201-06008-6.
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[34] Barnes, John R., Robust Electronic Design Reference Book, Volumes 1 and 2. Boston, MA: Kluwer Academic Publishers, 2004. ISBN 1-4020-7739-4. $430.00 list price. This web page and its companion web page Designing Lead-Free, RoHS-Compliant, and WEEE-Compliant Electronics supplement these two books, and when completed may be considered as Chapter 20.5 in Volume 1.
[] Barrett, C. S., and Massalski, T. B., Structure of Metals: Crystallographic Methods, Principles and Data . New York: Pergamon, 1980.
[] Barrett, Charles S., Structure of Metals: Crystallographic Methods, Principles, and Data . New York: McGraw-Hill, 1943.
[] Barry, B. T. K., and Thwaites, C. J., Tin and Its Alloys and Compounds. New York: Halsted Press, 1983.
[] Bath, Jasbir, Lead-Free Soldering. New York: Springer, 2007. ISBN 978-0-387-32466-1. $129.00 list price.
[(35)] Beaty, H. Wayne, Electrical Engineering Materials Reference Guide. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1990. ISBN 0-07-004196-2.
[(36)] Bell Telephone Laboratories, Physical Design of Electronic Systems: Volume II Materials Technology . Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1970. ISBN 13-666362-1.
[] Berger, Melvin, Hazardous Substances: A Reference. Hillside, NJ: Enslow Publishers, 1986. ISBN 0-89490-116-8.
[] Best, Joel, Flavor of the Month: Why Smart People Fall for Fads. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 2006. ISBN 0-520-23626-8. $19.95 list price.
[] Billatos, Samir B., and Basaly, Nadia A., Green Technology and Design for the Environment. Washington, D. C.: Taylor & Francis, 1997. ISBN 1-56032-460-0. $93.42 list price.
[(37)] Boyer, Howard E., and Gall, Timothy L,, Metals Handbook: Desk Edition. Metals Park, OH: American Society for Metals, 1985. ISBN 0-87170-188-X.
[] Bradley, Edwin, Handwerker, Carol A., Bath, Jasbir, Parker, Richard D., and Gedney, Ronald W., Lead-Free Electronics: iNEMI Projects Lead to Successful Manufacturing . Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons, 2007. ISBN 978-0-471-44887-7. $99.95 list price.
[(39)] Brandes, Eric A., Smithell's Metals Reference Book. Boston, MA: Butterworths, 1983. ISBN 0-408-71053-5.
[] Brandes, E. A., and Brook, G. B., Smithells Metals Reference Book, 7th Edition. Woburn, MA: Elsevier Butterworth-Heinemann, 1998. ISBN 0750636246.
[] Brick, R. M., and Phillips, Arthur, Structure and Property of Alloys. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1949.
[] Burns, R. M., and Bradley, W. W., Protective Coatings for Metals, 3rd Edition. New York: Reinhold Publishing, 1967.
[] Cahn, Robert W. and Haansen, Peter, Physical Metallurgy, 4th Edition, Volume 1. New York: Elsevier North Holland, 1996. ISBN 0444898751. $995.00 list price for 3-volume set.
[(41)] Cain, Tubal, Soldering and Brazing. Poole, Dorset, United Kingdom: Special Interest Model Books, 2003.
[] Cairns, J. H., and Gilbert, P. T., The Technology of Heavy Non-Ferrous Metals and Alloys. London: George Newnes, 1967.
[] Callenberg, Mona, Tenntradsbroderier. Vasteras, Sweden: ICA bokforlag, 1997. ISBN 91-534-1816-6.
[(42)] Capillo, Carmen, Surface Mount Technology. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1990. ISBN 0-07-009781-X.
[] Carson, H. Tom, and Cox, Doye B., Handbook on Hazardous Materials Management, 4th Edition. Institute of Hazardous Materials Management, 1992.
[] Chalmers, Bruce, and King, R., Progress in Metal Physics, Volume 5. New York: Interscience, 1954.
[] Cheremisinoff, Paul N., and Cheremisinoff, Nicholas P., Lead: A Guidebook to Hazard Detection, Remediation, and Control. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: PTR Prentice Hall, 1993. ISBN 0-13-012436-2.
[] Christian, J. W., The Theory of Transformations in Metals and Alloys. London: Pergamon Press, 1965.
[(43)] Classon, Frank, Surface Mount Technology for Concurrent Engineering and Manufacturing . New York: McGraw-Hill, 1993. ISBN 0-07-011200-2.
[(44)] Clauser, Henry R., Encyclopedia/Handbook of Materials, Parts and Finishes. Westport, CT: Technomic Publishing, 1976.
[] Cohen, Ernst, Physico-Chemical Metamorphosis and Some Problems in Piezochemistry . New York: McGraw-Hill, 1928.
[(45)] Coombs, Jr., Clyde F., Printed Circuits Handbook, 3rd Edition. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1988. ISBN 0-07-012609-7.
[(46)] Coombs, Jr., Clyde F., Printed Circuits Handbook, 5th Edition. New York: McGraw-Hill, 2001. ISBN 0-07-135016-0. $125.00 list price.
[] Cralley, Lewis J., Cralley, Lester V., and Bus, James S., Patty's Industrial Hygiene and Toxicology, 3rd Edition, Volume III, Part B. New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1995, ISBN 0-471-53065-4.
[] Crowson, Richard, The Handbook of Manufacturing Engineering, 2nd Edition. New York: CRC Taylor & French, 2006. ISBN 0-8493-5554-0. $139.95 list price.
[] Cullity, B. D., Elements of X-Ray Diffraction, 2nd Edition. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley, 1967. ISBN 0-201-01174-3.
[] Darken, Lawrence S., Gurry, Robert W., Physical Chemistry of Metals. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1953.
[] Dehlinger, Ulrich, Chemische Physik der Metalle und Legierungen. Liepzig, Germany: Akademische Verlagsgesellschaft, 1939.
[] Denison, Richard A., and Ruston, John, Recycling & Incineration: Evaluating the Choices. Washington, D. C.: Island Press, 1990. ISBN 1-55963-054-X. $50.00 list price.
[] Dillard, Clyde R., and Goldberg, David E., Chemistry Reactions, Structure and Properties. New York: MacMillan, 1971.
[] Dunn, Barrie D., Metallurgical Assessment of Spacecraft Parts, Materials and Processes . New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1997. ISBN 047196428X. $280.00 list price.
[(47)] Durney, Lawrence J., Electroplating Engineering Handbook, 4th Edition. New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold, 1984. ISBN 0-442-22002-2.
[] Earnshaw, A., and Greenwood, Norman, Chemistry of the Elements, 2nd Edition. Elsevier, 1997. List price $99.95.
[] Edwards, Joseph, Coating and Surface Treatment Systems for Metals: A Comprehensive Guide to Selection. Materials Park, OH: ASM International, 1997. pp. 254-261.
[] Elices, M., and Llorca, J., Fiber Fracture. Oxford, UK: Elsevier, 2002. ISBN 0080441041. $199.00 list price.
[] Emsley, John, Molecules at an Exhibition - Portraits of Intriguing Materials in Everyday Life, New York: Oxford University Press, 1998. ISBN 0192862065. $17.95 list price.
[] Emsley, John, Nature's Building Blocks: An A-Z Guide to the Elements. Oxford University Press, 2001. ISBN 0198503407. $17.95 list price.
[] Evans, John W., A Guide to Lead-free Solders. London: Springer-Verlag, 2007. ISBN 978-1-84628-309-3. $129.00 list price.
[] Flinn, Richard A., and Trojan, Paul K., Engineering Materials and Their Applications, Second Edition. Dallas, TX: Houghton Mifflin, 1981. ISBN 0-395-29645-5.
[] Forsythe, W. E., Smithsonian Physical Tables, 9th Edition. Knovel, 1954.
[] Frear, D. R., Morgan, H. D., Burcheit, S. N., and Lau, J. H., The Mechanics of Solder Alloy Interconnects. New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold, 1994. ISBN 0-442-01505-4. $215.00 list price.
[] Frear, D. R., Jones, W. B., and Kinsman, K. R., Solder Mechanics: A State of the Art Assessment. Warrendale, PA: The Minerals, Metals & Materials Society, 1990. ISBN 0-87339-131-4.
[] Fukuda, Mitsuo, Reliability and Degradation of Semiconductor Lasers and LEDs. Boston, MA: Artech House, 1991. ISBN 0-89006-465-2. $138.00 list price.
[48] Ganesan, Sanka, and Pecht, Michael, Lead-free Electronics 2004 Edition. College Park, MD: CALCE EOSC Press, 2003. ISBN 0-9707174-7-4. $100 list price.
[] Ganesan, Sanka, and Pecht, Michael. Lead-free Electronics. Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons, 2006. ISBN 0-471-78617-9. $99.95 list price.
[49] Gilleo, Ken, Area Array Packaging Handbook: Manufacturing and Assembly. New York: McGraw-Hill, 2002. ISBN 0-07-137493-0. $125.00 list price.
[50] Gilleo, Ken, Area Array Packaging Materials: Adhesives, Pastes, and Lead-Free. New York: McGraw-Hill, 2004. ISBN 0-07-142828-3. $130.00 list price.
[] Gilman, J. J., The Art and Science of Growing Crystals. New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1963.
[51] Goldberg, Lee H., and Middleton, Wendy, Green Electronics/Green Bottom Line: Environmentally Responsible Engineering. Boston, MA: Newnes, 2000. ISBN 0-7506-9993-0. $59.95 list price.
[] Goodman, P., A Guide to Compliance with the RoHS Directive. ERA Technology. ISBN 0-7008-0780, £175.00 list price. (do not have)
[(52)] Gordon, Pamela J., Lean and Green: Profit for Your Workplace and the Environment. San Francisco, CA: Berrett-Koehler, 2001. ISBN 1-57675-17088. $24.95 list price.
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Ph.D. and Master's Theses on Lead-Free, RoHS, and
WEEE (revised 6/19/2008)
Anastasio, Onofrio A., An Approach for Impression Creep of Lead-Free Microelectronic Solders . Master's Thesis for Naval Postgraduate School, Monterey, CA. June 2002. ASIN B0006S1AZU.
Anson, Scott J., Analysis of Lead Free Tin-Silver-Copper and Tin-Lead Solder Wetting Reactions. Ph. D. Thesis for State University of New York, Binghamton, University, Binghamton, NY, 2007.
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Bai, Guofeng, Low-Temperature Sintering of Nanoscale Silver Paste for Semiconductor Device Interconnection. Ph. D. Thesis for Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Blacksburg, VA, Oct. 2005.
Bangalore, Sudhindra Nagaraj, Evaluation of conductive adhesives for Surface Mount Technology. Master's Thesis for University of Louisville, Louisville, KY, June 1992.
Beaumont, Matthew Hall, Characterization of Indalloy 227 Non Lead Solder. Ph. D. Thesis for Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN, Dec. 1999.
Becker, James Hall, Crystal Growth and Electrical and Optical Properties of Gray Tin. Ph. D. Thesis for Cornell University, June 1957.
Belbase, Hemant, Lead Free Soldering Materials, Reliability and Process Optimization . Master's Thesis for University of Massachusetts Lowell, Lowell, MA, Oct. 25, 2000.
Benedict, Michael Scott, Heterogeneous Nucleation of Sn in Sn-Ag-Cu Solder Joints. Master's Thesis for State University of New York, Binghamton University, Binghamton, NY, 2007.
Berrios, Antonio Tavarez, Modeling the Reflow Process of an Actual PCB. Master's Thesis for University of Puerto Rico, Mayaguez, PR, 2001.
Bhave, Aniket, A Leaded and Lead-Free Solder Paste Evaluation Screening Procedure . Master's Thesis for State University of New York, Binghamton University, Binghamton, NY, 2005.
Bloomer, Tamara Ellis, Microstructural and mechanical properties of a novel lead-free solder . Master's Thesis for Iowa State University, Ames, IA, 1999.
Bowers, Trevor S., Microstructural Evolution of Nickel-Enhanced Tin-Copper Solder Joints on Nickel/Gold and Immersion Silver PCB Finishes. Master's Thesis for University of Alabama in Huntsville, Huntville, AL, 2006.
Bruno, Felix, An Experimental Study on Voids in Area Array Devices for Mixed Alloy Assemblies. Ph. D. Thesis for State University of New York, Binghamton University, Binghamton, NY, 2006.
Bukhari, Sarfaraz, Evaluation of the Effects of Processing Conditions on Shear Strength in Pb-Free Surface Mount Assembly. Master's Thesis for State University of New York, Binghamton University, Binghamton, NY, 2004.
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Chada, Srinivas, Effect of Processing Parameters and Thermal Cycling on the Microstructure and Strength of Eutectic Sn-Ag Solder on Cu. Ph. D. Thesis for Marquette University, Milwaukee, WI, May 1998.
Chandler, Gary Jesse Howard, Growth of Whiskers in the Indium-Tin Alloy System and the effect of Elastic Strain on Tc in alpha Indium-Tin. Master's Thesis for Clemson University, Clemson, SC, Aug. 1972.
Chang, Won, CSP Drop Test Performance Comparison for Different Solder Ball Materials . Master's Thesis for San Jose State University, San Jose, CA, May 2005.
Chaware, Raghunandan, Underfill Process Development for Lead Free Flip Chip Assembly. Ph. D. Thesis for State University of New York, Binghamton University, Binghamton, NY, 2004.
Chennagiri, Gurudutt, Rework of Lead-Free Area Array Packages Assembled on Ultra-thin Flexible Substrates. Master's Thesis for State University of New York, Binghamton University, Binghamton, NY, 2007.
Chin, Melida, Electrical Contact Resistance of Anisotropic Conductive Adhesive Assemblies in Microelectronics Packaging. Ph. D. Thesis for University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, 2005.
Choi, Sunglak, Studies on In-Situ Particulate Reinforced Sn-Ag Composite Solders Relevant to Thermomechanical Fatigue Issues. Ph. D. Thesis for Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI, 2001.
Choi, Woojin, Reliability of Pb-free Solders in Electronic Packaging Technology . Ph. D. Thesis for University of California, Los Angeles, CA, 2002.
Choubey, Anupam, Microstructural Changes Under Isothermal Aging and Their Influence on Thermal Fatigue Reliability for Tin-Lead and Lead-Free Solder Joints, Including Microstructural Changes Under Isothermal Aging in Mixed Solder Joints. Ph. D. Thesis for University of Maryland, College Park, MD, 2007.
Ciocci, Richard C., Assessing the Migration to Lead-Free Electronic Products. Ph. D. Thesis for University of Maryland, College Park, MD, 2001.
Deubzer, Otmar, Explorative Study into the Sustainable Use and Substitution of Soldering Metals in Electronics: Ecological and Economical Consequences of the Ban of Leas in Electronics and Lessons to Be Learned for the Future. Graad van Doktor (Ph. D.) Thesis for Technische Universiteit Delft, Delft, Nederland, 2007.
Dhakal, Ramji, Failure Mechanism of Lead-Free Sn-Ag-Cu Solder BGA Interconnects. Master's Thesis for State University of New York at Binghamton, Binghamton, NY, 2005.
Ding, Fei, Flip Chip and Lid Attachment Assembly Process Development. Ph. D. Thesis for Auburn University, Auburn, AL, Dec. 15, 2006.
Ege, Efe Sinan, Thermo-mechanical Properties and Integrity of Metallic Interconnects in Microelectronics. Ph. D. Thesis for University of New Mexico, Albuquerque, NM, Dec. 2003.
Emery, Robert Thomas, Isotropic Conductive Adhesives for Use in the Microelectronics Industry . Master's Thesis for University of Toronto, Toronto, Canada, 1996.
Faizan, Mohammad, Experimental Study and Modeling of Metal Dissolution and Intermetallic Compound Growth During Soldering. Ph. D. Thesis for University of Akron, Akron, OH, Dec. 2007.
Fang, Tong, Tin Whisker Risk Assessment Studies. Ph. D. Thesis for University of Maryland, College Park, Maryland. 2005.
Fojas, Paul B., The Influence of Cold Work on the Wettability of Pb-Free Solders on Copper. Master's Thesis for San Jose State University, San Jose, CA, Dec. 2002.
Fountoukidis, Evangelos, Thermo-Mechanical Response of Monolithic and NiTi Shape Memory Alloy Fiber Reinforced Sn-3.8Ag-0.7Cu Solder. Masters Thesis for Naval Postgraduate School, Monterey, CA. Sept. 2005.
Fukuda, Yuki, Experimental Investigations of Whisker Formation on Tin Platings . Ph. D. Thesis for University of Maryland, College Park, Maryland. 2005.
Gagliano, Robert Andrew, Characterization of the Growth Behavior of Cu-Sn Intermetallics in Liquid Tin/Solid Copper Reaction Couples. Ph. D. Thesis for Northwestern University, Evanston, IL, Dec. 2002.
Gan, Hua, Polarity Effect of Electromigration on Intermetallic Compound (IMC) Formation in Pb-free Solder V-groove Samples. Ph. D. Thesis for University of California, Los Angeles, CA, 2004.
Ghorbani, Hamid Reza, Analytical Modeling of Thermal Stresses in Solder Joints - Application to Reliability Prediction. Ph. D. Thesis for University of Toronto, Toronto, Canada, 2006.
Ghosh, Santaneel, A Non-contact Measurement Technique at the Micro Scale. Ph. D. Thesis for University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ, 2005.
Ghosh, Santanu, Finite Element Analysis of Moisture and Thermal Induced Stress in Flip Chip Packages. Master's Thesis for University of Texas at Arlington, Arlington, TX, May 2006.
Goldstein, Julia L. Freer, Microstructural Development and Mechanical Behavior of Eutectic Bismuth-Tin and Eutectic Indium-Tin in Response to High Temperature Deformation (Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory Report LBL 34909). Ph. D. Thesis for University of California, Berkeley, CA, Nov. 1993.
Gopakumar, Sunil, An Experimental Approach to Develop Process Windows for Lead-Free Flip Chip Assembly from a Yield and Reliability Perspective. Ph. D. Thesis for State University of New York, Binghamton University, Binghamton, NY, 2003.
Gordon, Matthew, A Nacreous Self-Assembled Nanolaminate for Corrosion Resistance on 2024-Al Alloy. Masters Thesis for Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Blacksburg, VA, May 24, 2001.
Greene, Christopher M., Lead-Free Solder Paste Printing for EMS Providers. Ph. D. Thesis for State University of New York, Binghamton University, Binghamton, NY, 2001.
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Guo, Fu, Studies on Lead-Free Solders Reinforced with Mechanically-Incorporated Cu, Ag, and Ni Particles. Ph. D. Thesis for Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI, 2002.
Guo, Weiqing, Testing Methodology for Reflow Soldering Process Compatibility Evaluation of Surface Mount Technology. Ph. D. Thesis for University of Texas at Austin, Austin, TX, May 2001.
Hanchinamani, V., Novel Additives for Conductive Epoxy Adhesive. Master's Thesis for University of Massachusetts Lowell, Lowell, MA, 2001.
Haswell, Peter Lewis, Durability Assessment and Microstructural Observations of Selected Solder Alloys. Ph. D. Thesis for University of Maryland, College Park, MD, 2001.
Hensler, Donald Henry, Oscillatory Microwave Magnetoconductivity in Gray Tin. Ph. D. Thesis for University of Wisconsin, Madison, WI, Jan. 1963.
Hinkley Jr., Everett David, Oscillatory Magnetoresistance in Gray Tin. Ph. D. Thesis for Northwestern University, Evanston, IL, June 1963.
Hodges, S. LeAnn, Evaluation of Lead Free Solder and No-Clean Flux for Attachment of High Power Components to Direct Bond Copper. Master's Thesis for University of Kentucky, Lexington, KY, 1996.
Hossain, Mohammad Masum, Development of Constitutive Equation Parameters and Reliability Evaluations of SnAgCu Interconnects. Ph. D. Thesis for University of Texas, Arlington, TX, May 2006.
How, Yew Seng, Modeling of Impression Testing to Obtain Mechanical Properties of Lead-Free Solders Microelectronic Interconnects. Masters Thesis for Naval Postgraduate School, Monterey, CA. Dec. 2005.
Huang, Xingjia, Investigation and Analysis on the Solder Ball Shear Strength of Plastic Ball Grid Array, Chip Scale, and Flip Chip Packages with Eutectic Pb-Sn and Pb-free Solders. Ph. D. Thesis for Hong Kong University of Science and Technology, Hong Kong, Jan. 2003.
Islam, Mohd Nokibul, Investigations on Damage Mechanics and Life Prediction of Fine-Pitch Electronics in Harsh Environments. Ph. D. Thesis for Auburn University, Auburn, AL, Aug. 8, 2005.
Iyer, Ganesh R., Role of Intermetallics for Both Tin-Lead and Lead-Free Solder Structures and Its Solder Pad Combination. Master's Thesis for State University of New York, Binghamton University, Binghamton, NY, 2005.
Jadhav, Susheel Ganeshrao, Stress Relaxation in Lead-Free Solder Joints. Master's Thesis for Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI, 2001.
Jain, Sameer, Research and Application of a Thermal Management Device (CoolCap(TM)) for Electronic Assemblies. Master's Thesis for State University of New York, Binghamton, NY, 2006.
Joshi, Rahul V., Thermo-mechanical Behavior of Tin-Lead and Lead-Free Ceramic Column Grid Array Packages. Master's Thesis for State University of New York, Binghamton University, Binghamton, NY, 2005.
Kabade, Rajendra R., Metallurgical Investigation of Ag-Cu-Sn Lead-Free Solder with the Addition of Au. Master's Thesis for University of Texas at Arlington, Arlington, TX, Aug. 2003.
Kao, Hui-Ju, Effect of Cu additives on Sn whisker formation and interfacial reaction of Sn(Cu) finishes. Master's Thesis for National Central University, Jhong-Li, Taiwan, May 23, 2005.
Katsis, Dimosthenis C., Thermal Characterization of Die-Attach Degradation in the Power MOSFET . Ph. D. Thesis for Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Blacksburg, VA, Jan. 16, 2003.
Kaushik, Muthur Srinath Purushotham, A Statistically Based Evaluation of Creep and Shear Behaviour of Monolithic and Composite Lead Free Solders for Microelectronic Applications . Master's Thesis for University of Texas at Arlington, Arlington, TX, Dec. 2004,
Keimasi, Mohammadreza, Flex Cracking and Temperature-Humidity-Bias Effects on Reliability of Multilayer Ceramic Capacitors. Ph. D. Thesis for University of Maryland, College Park, MD, 2007.
Kim, Dongwook, Fluxless Flip Chip Bonding Processes and Aerial Fluxless Bonding Technology. Ph. D. Thesis for University of California, Irvine, CA, 2004.
Kim, Harqkyun, Wetting Kinetics and Interfacial Reaction of Lead(Pb)-based and lead(Pb)-free Solder Alloys on Cu and Ni Metallizations in Electronic Packaging. Ph. D. Thesis for University of California, Los Angeles, CA, 1996.
Kim, Hye-Rim, Growth and Low Frequency Noise Properties of Grey Tin Films. Ph. D. Thesis for Cornell University, Ithaca, NY, May 1991.
Kim, Patrick Gu-Ho, Wetting Behaviors and Interfacial Reactions of Pb-containing and Pb-free Solder Alloys on Au, Pd, Ni Foils, Leadframes, and Under Bump Thin Film Metallizations in Electronic Packaging. Ph. D. Thesis for University of California, Los Angeles, CA, 1998.
Kindesjo, Ulrika, Phasing out lead in solders: An assessment of possible impacts of material substitution in electronic solders on the recycling of printed circuit boards. Master's Thesis for University of Lund, Lund, Sweden, Oct. 2002.
Kinyanjui, Robert Kamau, Thermal Processes and Solidification Kinetics of Evolution of the Microstructure of Sn-xAg-yCu (0 <=x<=4.0; 0<=y<=1.4) Solder Alloys. Ph. D. Thesis for State University of New York, Binghamton University, Binghamton, NY, 2005.
Kirkpatrick, Timothy, The Kinetics of Tin Solidification in Lead-Free Solder Joints. Master's Thesis for State University of New York, Binghamton University, Binghamton, NY, 2006.
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Lee, Jong-Gi, Investigation of Thermomechanical Fatigue (TMF) Behavior in Tin-Silver Based Solder Joints. Ph. D. Thesis for Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI, 2005.
Lee, Taekyeong, Electromigration and Solid State Aging of Flip Chip Solder Joints and Analysis of Sn Whisker on Lead-frame. Ph. D. Thesis for University of California, Los Angeles, CA, 2001.
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Li, Haiying, Study of Thermally Reworkable Epoxy Materials and Thermal Conductivity Enhancement Using Carbon Fiber for Electronics Packaging. Ph. D. Thesis for Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, GA, Nov. 2003.
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Liu, Pilin, Roles of Interfacial Reaction on Mechanical Properties of Solder Interfaces. Ph. D. Thesis for University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL, 2004.
Liu, Yueli, Lead-Free Assembly and Reliability of Chip Scale Packages and 01005 Components. Ph. D. Thesis for Auburn University, Auburn, AL, May 11, 2006.
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Loomans, Michael Eugene, Phase Equilibria in Potential Pb-Free Solder Alloy Systems. Ph. D. Thesis for Northwestern University, Evanston, IL, Dec. 1999.
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Lu, Yuan, Effect of Ag and Cu on Sn-x%Ag-y%Cu Interconnects. Ph. D. Thesis for Wayne State University, Detroit, MI, 2006.
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McCabe, Rodney James, Creep of InSb and SbSn Strengthened Tin-based Alloys: Effect of Precipitate Size, Shape, and Spacing. Ph. D. Thesis for Northwestern University, Evanston, IL, Dec. 2000.
McDougall, Jeffrey Lee, An Analysis of Global and Localized Creep Strains and Creep Properties of Non-Composite and Composite Lead-Free Solders at Room and Elevated Temperatures. Master's Thesis for Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI, 1998.
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Mukherjee, Shantanu, Lead-Free Wave Soldering of 'Thick' PCB Using Sn 3.8%Ag 0.07%Cu and No-Clean VOC-Free Flux. Master's Thesis for State University of New York, Binghamton University, Binghamton, NY, 2007.
Munukutla, Aravind, Tensile Properties of Lead Free Solders. Master's Thesis for University of Texas at Arlington, Arlington, TX, Dec. 2004.
Nagarkar, Kaustubh Ravindra, A Systems Approach to Ultra-fine Pitch Flip Chip Interconnect Packaging . Ph. D. Thesis for State University of New York, Binghamton University, Binghamton, NY, 2005.
Pei, Min, Effects of Lanthanum Doping on the Microstructure and Mechanical Behavior of a SnAg Alloy. Ph. D. Thesis for Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, GA, May 2007.
Pierce, David Michael, Continuum Damage Mechanics Based Failure Prediction Methodology for 95.5Sn-3.9Ag-0.6Cu Solder Alloy Interconnects in Electronic Packaging. Ph. D. Thesis for Stanford University, Stanford, CA, June 2007.
Puthenparambil, Abhilash, Effect of Bonding Pressure on Reliability of Anisotropic Conductive Adhesives Joints in a Silicon-to-Flex-Substrate Interconnection. Master's Thesis for Binghamton University, State University of New York, Binghamton, NY, 2006.
Qi, Yan, Accelerated Thermal Fatigue of SnPb and Pb-Free Solder Joints: Effect of Temperature Range and Rate of Change. Ph. D. Thesis for University of Toronto, Toronto, Canada, 2005.
Ramkumar, S. Manian, Process Analysis and Performance Characterization of a Novel Anisotropic Conductive Adhesive for Lead-Free Surface Mount Electronics Assembly. Ph. D. Thesis for Binghamton University, State University of New York, Binghamton, NY, 2007.
Raut, Rahul, Thermal Management of Heat Sensitive Components in Pb-Free Assembly and Rework Process. Master's Thesis for State University of New York, Binghamton, NY, 2005.
Ready IV, William Judson, Reliability Investigation of Printed Wiring Boards Processed with Water Soluble Flux Constituents. Ph. D. Thesis for Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, GA, July 2000.
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Ren, Fei, Polarity Effect of Electromigration on Mechanical Properties of Lead-Free Solder Joints. Ph. D. Thesis for University of California, Los Angeles, CA, 2006.
Reuse, Rolando, Thermomechanical Behavior of Monolithic Sn-Ag-Cu Solder and Copper Fiber Reinforced Solders. Masters Thesis for Naval Postgraduate School, Monterey, CA. Sept. 2005.
Reynolds, Heidi Linch, Creep of Two-Phase Microstructures for Microelectronic Applications (Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory Report LBNL42733). Ph. D. Thesis for University of California, Berkeley, CA, Dec. 1998.
Rhee, Hongjoo, Roles of Service Parameters on the Mechanical Behavior of Lead-Free Solder Joints. Ph. D. Thesis for Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI, 2005.
Rogers, Keith Leslie, An Analytical and Experimental Investigation of Filament Formation in Glass/Epoxy Composites. Ph. D. Thesis for University of Maryland, College Park, Maryland. 2005.
Roman, Bernard John, Stress-Induced Bandgap and Related Phenomena in Gray Tin. Ph. D. Thesis for Northwestern University, Evanston, IL, June 1969.
Rowley, Jonathan Gabriel, The Role of Soldering Process Variables on Properties of Lead-Free Solder Joints. Master's Thesis for University of Texas at Arlington, Arlington, TX, Aug. 2003.
Sabbagh, N. A. J.,